L. dis, di, F. dés, dé

The force of the F. de, dé, dés is generally négative ; it dénotes sometimes séparation, sometimes it indicates the contrary of the action expressed by the simple verb.

The particle de is identical with the préposition de which occurs in debout, dessous, dessus, dehors, derrière, devant. Comparativel}' few words compounded with de are retained in French : demander, ' to ask ' (L. dcmandare) ; demeurer, ' to remain' (L. dcmorari) ; dorer, ' to gild ' (L. deaurare) ; degré ["P. degradus).

L. de has often become dé in French, and is then often difiicult to distinguish from dé corresponding to L. dis; e.g. déchoir, ' to fall,' 'décline' ( L. decidere) ; dédier, ' to dedicate ' (L. dedicare).

The Latin dis, di becomes in French mostly dé before a consonant, and dés before a vowel and mute h, e.g. dépenser [dispenderc, dispensare), déplaire {displicere), déluge [diluvium). Note French de in deviser, demi, from Lat. di in divisare, dimidium. The Latin dis is found in a number of modem compositions, e.g. discontinuer, disparaît?-e, disloquer, disgrâce.

The prefix dés, dé forms a great number of compounds in French : décharger, déshét-iter, déloyal, désho?inête, désagréable, dégoût, déshonneur, désordre, désastre, déborder, dégainer, décomposer.

A Chaptcr on Word Formation 187

Forni compounds with this prefix and the foUowing words, and give their nieaning in English : —

faire goûter espérer obéir

garnir armer raison sécher

ttouer avouer marche joindre

(5) L. ex, e, F. é, es, ex.

Force: 'extraction,' 'privation,' ' accomplishment of an action.'

Onlj- few Latin compounds with e hâve passed into French, viz. L. emendare, F. amender ; L. eradicare, F. arracher. L. ex becomes é, or es before s, or remains ex in words of learned origin, as in étrange {extraneus), essouJler[exsufflare), essuyer [exsticcare]; expérience, expédition, exposition, expliquer. After ex s is often dropped, e.g. exécuter (exsecutus), exuder (exsudare).

French has formed words with this prcfix with ess : essorer {ex-aurare, aura, 'the wind'), essorilkr (P. exauriculare, auriculam, 'the ear'); with é : ébattre, échanger, émouvoir, écarteler, égorger, émerveiller, éclairer, éclaircir ; w'xih ex : exhausser, exhumer, ex-ministre.

Form compounds with this prefix to express —

enlever la barbe la corne la graine

,, le fil les feuilles les dents

(6) L. foris, F. fors, hors.

Force : ' déviation from the right course,' ' errer,' ' excess.' This particle, httle used in Latin, has become in French fors or hors 'outside,' and with it are formed le forfait, 'crime' ; fout-coyer, ' to mislead'; fourbu, ' foundered,' i.e. ill from overdrinking after hard work ; un forcené (qui est hors de sens), as in une ambition forcenée ; hormis, ' except,' ' but,' ' save ' ; le hors-d œuvre, ' side-dish ' ; le faubourg, O. F. forsbourg, ' suburb. '

(7) L. in (or by assimilation im, ig, il, ir), F. en, em. Force : ' into,' ' to put into,' ' to cause to become ' +adj. , négative.

£n is used as a préposition, and also to form new words. In that case it becomes em before b, m, and /. A certain numbcr of Latin compounds with in hâve been taken overinto French ; e.g. iniplicare has given employer : implere, emplir ; inclaudere, enclore ; inducere, enduire ; indormire, endormir ,■ imprimere, empreindre : inflare, enfler. French has formed a great many compounds with en, em, e.g. enchaîner, enfermer, engaîner, embarquer, encourager, enrichir, embonpoint, enjeu, entrain, emplacement, etc.

In many of the verbs formed with en, <•/« + adjective, the force of this particle is to make the verb factilive, e.g. enivrer, embellir, endurcir, enrichir, etc.

In a number of cases the L. in is taken over into French : inclinare, incliner ; implorare, implorer ; illustrare, illustrer ; irrigatio, irrigation. In is also found in derivatives from Latin forms.

i88 Histoire de la Première Croisade

e.g. incendier (incendium), inciser {incisus), infecter {infectus); and in words of more récent formation, as intimider, infiltrer, s'incarner, introniser, innocent, impatient, illettré, irrégulier.

Form compound verbs with this particle to express — mettre dans le cadre la poche le tas

,, ,, la chaîne le fil le gouffre

,, ,, la châsse le registre la barqiie

,, ,, la caisse le rôle la terre

Note. — In a few words with the prefix en, ein, this particle cornes from Latin inde ( ' from there'), e.g. enfuir, enlever, entraîner, envoyer, emmener, emporter ; also s'en aller.

(8) L. inter, F. entre.

Force : ' in between,' ' half,' ' reciprocity. ' A number of compounds are formed in French with his particle, the force of which differs considerably, e.g. F entresol, l'entremets, 'side-dish' (between roast méat and dessert); entrouvert, 'half open,' ' ajar ' ; entrevoir, ' to see partly ' ; entremêler, ' to mix together ' ; s'entre-nuire, ' to injure each other ' ; s'entre-battre, ' to fight one another. '

The form inter occurs in compounds taken over from Latin, e.g. intercepter (interceptus), intéresser [interesse), intercaler {intercalare), interdire [interdicere), and in some technical words, as inter-osseux (anat. interosseal), inter-tnusculaire.

Form compounds with this prefix and the following words, and give their English meaning, pointing out the force of the particle in each case : —

avertir venir égorger haïr

aider acte pont règne

rompre mettre tenir détruire

(9) L. ob, F. ob.

This particle has disappeared in French except in a few compounds which hâve been taken over from Latin, e.g. obéir [obedire, obaudire), oublier (obliterare), occire [occidere), offenser [offendere), opprimer (opprimere), objet [objectus), occulte (occultus). In ôter (obsiare) the b has been dropped ; les obsèques comes from médiéval Latin obsequiae for L. exsequiae.

(10) L. par, F. par, per.

Force : ' right through to the end,' ' hère and there,' ' very. '

The Latin particle per remains per in French in most compounds taken over from Latin, e.g. percevoir {'L,. percipere), perdre (L. perdere), permettre (L. permittere), persécuter (L. persecutari) ; it only rarely hecoxnes par, as m parcourir (L. percurrere), parvenir (L. pervenire). French formed in the Middle Ages many verbs with this particle, of which only few remain, as parfaire, paracliez'cr, ' to achieve completely. ' In parsetner, ' to sprinkle,' ' to intersperse,' and paffumer.

A Chapter on Word Formation 189

' to p)crfume,' the force is the same as in Latin pcri'agari, ' to wandcr about hère and there,' and perfolare, ' lo fly about. ' In words of more récent formation par is regularly the particle, not /«•/-, e.g. pardonner, parjikr, parterre.

As a préposition, par joins adverbs, as in par-dessus (hence the noun le pardessus), par-dessous.

In connexion with adjectivcs per expressed a sort of superlative in Latin, e.g. pergracilis, perutilis. O.F. used par in the same way in place of the modem /rès, but separated it usually from the adjective by a verb or another adverb. A remnant of this usage is left in par trop, viz. c'est par trop fort, which comes to c'est trop par fort.

Form compounds with this particle and the following words, and give their meaning in English : —

courir mettre venir fumer

fait semer jurer siffler