II. THE PARTICIPLE PAST.

1. The Participle Past used without auxiliary partakes of the nature of an adjective.

une lettre lue, a letter read. des hommes persécutés, persecuted men. des femmes admirées, admired women. les parents chéris, the beloved parents.

N. B.--The participles excepté, supposé, passé, vu, assuming a prepositional relation, when placed before nouns they modify, are invariable.

excepté mes amis, my friends excepted. supposé ces faits, these facts supposed. passé cette heure, that hour passed. vu ces choses, these things examined.

2. When joined to the verb être, it is a true adjective.

Les vérités qui ont été dites, The truths that have been said. Les femmes sont parties, The women have left. L'affaire a été réglée, The business has been settled.

3. When, however, the verb is an accidental reflective originating from a transitive, then the Participle Past agrees with its direct object only when preceded by it; when followed after, it is invariable.

Quelles dures vérités ils se sont dites, What hard truths they have told each other!

Ils se sont dit de dures vérités, They have told each other some hard truths.

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4. When it is derived from an intransitive verb, the Participle Past is always invariable.

Ils or elles se sont plu, They have pleased each other. Ils or elles se sont nui, They have injured each other.

5. When joined to the verb avoir, it never agrees with its nominative.

ma fille m'a écrit, my daughter has written me. les enfants ont pleuré, the children have wept.

6. But it agrees with its direct object (see sec. 3) when preceded by it.

Les fleurs qu'elle m'a données, The flowers which she has given me. Les lettres que j'ai écrites, The letters which I have written. Les dames qu'il a connues, The ladies whom he has known.

7. Placed after it, it remains invariable.

J'ai écrit les lettres, I have written the letters. Il a connu les dames, He has known the ladies.

§ 51. THE ADVERB.

1. Adverbs are invariable; they are divided into seven classes.

1. Of manner, formed of adjectives by generally appending ment to their feminine terminations, as: gaiement, gayly. Some of these add the acute accent on the e mute, as énormément; others ending in nt change that into mment, as: prudent, prudemment; galant, galamment; savant, savamment.

2. Of order: d'abord, at first; ensuite, afterward.

3. Of place: là, there; ici, here; où, where; ailleurs, elsewhere.

4. Of time: aujourd'hui, to-day; hier, yesterday; demain, to-morrow.

5. Of quantity: beaucoup, much; peu, little; combien, how much; tant, so much.

6. Of comparison: aussi, as; plus, more; moins, less; autant, as much.

7. Of volition: oui, si, yes; non, no; certes, certainly; nullement, by no means; peut-être, perhaps.

N. B.--Si is used instead of oui in answer to a negative question.

2. Expressions used adverbially are:

à jamais, forever. à la fois, at once. à peu près, nearly. à la hâte, in haste. à bon marché, cheap. à tort et à travers, at random. à propos, by the way, seasonably. à l'envers, the wrong side out. à dessein, intentionally. à présent, at present. au moins, at least. à la mode, in the fashion. à l'avenir, in the future. à fond, thoroughly. à contre-coeur, against one's will. à toute heure, every hour. à la ronde, by turns. à force de bras, by mere strength. bon gré mal gré, whether one will or not. cà et là, here and there. ci-après, hereafter. ci-inclus, inclosed. ci-joint, annexed. d'abord, at first. d'ailleurs, besides. du moins, at least. de jour, in daytime. de jour en jour, from day to day. d'aujourd'hui en huit, this day week. de même, likewise. de long en large, backward and forward.

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§ 52. THE PREPOSITION.

Some of the principal prepositions are:

I. Such as are not followed by any other preposition, as:

à, to, at, in. après, after. à travers, through. avec, with. avant, before. chez, to, at the house of. contre, against. dans, in. de, of, from, with. depuis, since, from, for. derrière, behind. dès, from. devant, before. durant, during, for. en, in. entre, between. envers, toward. environ, about. excepté, except, but. malgré, in spite of. nonobstant, notwithstanding. outre, besides. par, by, through. parmi, among. pendant, during, for. pour, for, in order to. sans, without. selon, according to. sous, under. sur, on, upon, over. vers, toward, about. voici, here is, behold. voilà, there is, behold.

II. Such as are followed by à:

jusqu'à, as far as. par rapport à, in regard to.

III. Such as are followed by de:

à cause de, on account of. à côté de, by, next to. à force de, by dint of. à la faveur de, by means of. à la manière de, after the fashion of. à l'exception de, with the exception of. à moins de, unless. au dedans de, within. au dehors de, without. au derrière de, behind. au dessous de, under. au dessus de, over. au devant de, before. au lieu de, instead of. auprès de, near. au prix de, at the price of. autour de, around. en présence de, in presence of. jusqu'à, to, as far as. faute de, for want of. prés de, near by. en face de, opposite.

OBSERVATIONS.--1. à, de, en are generally repeated before words they govern.

Il passe son temps à boire, à manger et à jouer. He spends his time in drinking, eating, and gambling.

Une maison construite de marbre, de fer, de briques et de bois. A house constructed of marble, iron, bricks, and wood.

Elle passait toutes les autres filles en beauté, en grâces et en amabilité. She surpassed all the other girls in beauty, grace, and loveliness.

2. In regard to the other prepositions, they are by the best writers repeated and omitted (as is done in English) according to fancy or taste.

Dans la paix et dans la guerre. In peace and in war.

Avec une femme aimable, avec des enfants bien élevés et avec de bons livres on peut vieillir doucement. With a loving wife, with children well brought up, and with good books, one may peacefully grow old.

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IV. Examples in the use of some prepositions.

1. Auprès de (proximity and solicitude). Elle vit auprès de ses parents, she lives with her parents. Il cherche me nuire auprès de mon oncle, he seeks to injure me with my uncle.

2. Près de (simple proximity). Il est près de son ami, he is near his friend. Il est près de trois heures, it is nearly three o'clock.

3. Au prix de. Au prix de son honneur il a capitulé, at the price of his honor he has capitulated.

4. Chez. Chez vous, at home, to your house. Chez Monsieur Molle, at, to Mr. Molle's. Chez soi, at home in one's house. Chez lui, at his house. Chez les Grecs, among the Greeks.

5. Dans (definite). Dans un but utile, with a useful end in view. Dans une chambre, in a room. Dans une heure, in an hour.

6. En (indefinite). En Amérique, in America. En été, in summer. En robe, with a gown on. Agir en homme, to act like a man.

7. Depuis. Depuis le midi jusqu'au nord, from south to north. Depuis cinq heures jusqu'à six, from five o'clock till six. Je ne l'ai vu depuis longtemps, I have not seen him for a long time.

8. Contre (aggressive). L'armée marche contre l'ennemi, the army marches against the enemy. Qui n'est pas pour moi est contre moi, who is not for me is against me. C'est contre mon avis, this is contrary to my advice.

9. Envers (lenient). Vous êtes ingrat envers nous, you are ungrateful toward us.

10. Entre (between few). Elle est entre de bons amis, she is among good friends. La mère tient l'enfant entre ses bras, the mother holds her child in her arms.

11. Parmi (between many). Parmi la multitude, among the multitude.

12. Durant (greater epoch). Durant toute sa vie, during his whole life.

13. Pendant (lesser epoch). Pendant l'orage, during the storm.

14. Jusqu'à. De New York jusqu'à Washington, from New York to Washington. Il aime jusqu'à ses ennemis, he loves even his enemies. Jusqu'à la mort, unto death. Jusqu'ici, thus far. Jusqu'où? how far?

15. Prêt à. Je suis prêt à partir, I am ready to leave.

16. Vis-à-vis de. Il demeure vis-à-vis de l'église, he lives opposite the church. Votre maintien vis-à-vis de (or envers) vos frères est blamable, your behavior toward your brothers is objectionable.

§ 53. CONJUNCTIONS.

1. Essential conjunctions:

car, for. cependant, yet, still. comme, as. donc, therefore. d'ailleurs, besides. et, and. lorsque (lorsqu'), when. mais, but. ni, neither, nor. or,[D] now, pray. ou, or. pourquoi, why. puis, then. puisque (puisqu'), since. quand, when. que, that. quoique (quoiqu'), although. savoir, namely. si, if. sinon, if not, unless.

[Footnote D: Or, pour revenir à notre sujet, now, to return to our subject.]

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2. Conjunctive expressions:

au reste, besides. de même que, just as. du reste, however, yet. au moins, at least, however. au surplus, moreover. ou bien, or else. ainsi que, as well as. outre que, besides that. pendant que, while, whilst. parce que, because. sitôt que, as soon as. tandis que, while, whilst. au contraire, on the contrary.

3. Conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood:

afin que, that, in order that. avant que, before. à moins que,[E] unless. bien que, though. en attendant que, until. non pas que, } non que, } not that. posé que, } posé le cas que } supposing that. quoique (quoiqu'), though. soit que ... que, whether ... or. supposé que, supposing that. de peur que[E] } de crainte que[E] } for fear that, lest. en (au) cas que, in case that. jusqu'à ce que, until. malgré que, notwithstanding that. plaise à Dieu que, } plût à Dieu que, } would to God. pour que, that, in order that. pourvu que, provided that. sans que, without. si tant est que, if it is true that. supposons que, let us suppose that.

[Footnote E: A moins que, de peur que, de crainte que, require ne before the following verb, as: à moins que vous ne soyez laborieux, unless you are industrious; de peur (de crainte) qu'il ne se plaignît, for fear he might complain.]

4. Conjunctions followed by de require the infinitive, as:

Afin de[F] Il est allé trouver son maître afin d'obtenir sa grâce, he called on his teacher in order to obtain his pardon.

[Footnote F: Compare: Je lui écrivis afin d'avoir de ses nouvelles; Je lui écrivis afin que j'eusse de ses nouvelles, I wrote him so that I might hear from him.]

A moins de. Tout travail est inutile à moins d'être bien fait, any work is useless unless well done.

Avant de. Avant de mourir il fit appeler le prêtre, before dying he sent for the priest.

De crainte de; de peur de. Je n'ai pas osé le faire de peur (de crainte) de déplaire à mon père, I have not dared to do it for fear of displeasing my father.

§ 54. INTERJECTIONS.

Those most commonly used are:

Ah! Ah! Ahi! Oh! O dear! Oh! Oh! O ciel! Heavens! Diantre! The deuce! Bah! Bah! He! Ho! Ha! Ay! Eh! Hah! Ah! Hem! Ho! Ouf! Oh! Hum! Hum! Fi! Fy! Hélas! Alas! Aïe! Ay! Ouais! Ah, indeed! Paf! Crack! Sus! Come on! Cheer up! Ho ça! Holla! Hé bien! Now, then! Eh bien! Well, now! Oui-da! Truly! Tout beau! Softly! Silence! Silence! Paix! Silence! Gare! Beware! Tenez ferme! Hold on! Allons, ferme! Well, courage! Chut! Silence! Mon dieu! O dear!

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VOCABULARY TO THE STORY.

The synopsis of irregular, defective, impersonal verbs and such as take or change accents will be found in the alphabetical table, § 49.

A.

A, prep., to, at, in, with. abandonner, to surrender, to yield up. a-b-c, m., abc (alphabet). abord (d'), at first. aboyer, to bark. absence, f., absence. accabler (de, with), to weigh down. accepter, to accept. accompagner, to accompany. accorder, to grant. accourir, irr. (à, to), to run to. s'accoutumer, refl., to accustom one's self. s'accrocher, refl., to get fastened, to cling to. acheter, to buy. (See Alph. Tab., § 49.) acheteur, m., buyer. acier, m., steel. acte, m., act, action. activité, f., activity. additionner, to add. adieu, good-by; faire ses --x, to bid good-by. admiration, f., admiration. admirer, to admire. adorer, to adore. s'adoucir, refl., to soften. s'adresser, refl., to address one's self. adroit, -e, skillful, clever. affaire, f., business, thing, matter. affamé, -e, famished. affection, f., affection, love. affectioneux, -se, affectionate, loving. affirmer, to affirm. affreux, -se, frightful. afin (que), in order (that). Afrique, f., Africa. âge, f., age. âgé, old, of age. agile, agile, nimble. agiter, to wave, to agitate. ah! ah! aide, m., mate, assistant. aider, to aid, to help. aiguille, f., needle. aiguiser, to sharpen. aile, f., wing; ailé, winged. d'ailleurs, besides, moreover. aimable, amiable. aimer, to love. ainsi, thus, so. air, m., air, look. aise, glad; j'en suis bien --, I am very glad of it. aisément, easily. alentour, around, about. alerte, quick, alert. aller, irr., to go; s'en --, to go away. allumer, to light. alors, then. s'améliorer, to improve. amener, to take along, to bring. (See Alph. Tab., § 49.) amer, -ère, bitter. ami, m., -e, f., friend. amitié, f., friendship; faites mes --s à ..., give my regards to ... amour, m., love. amusant, amusing. s'amuser, refl., to amuse one's self. an, m., year; année, f., year. animal, m., animal; pl., animaux, animals. appartenir, irr., to belong. appeler, to call. (See Alph. Tab., § 49.) appliqué, -e, put on. s'appliquer, to apply one's self. apporter, to bring (by carrying). apprendre, to learn. apprenti, m., apprentice. apprentissage, m., apprenticeship. s'approcher (de), refl., to approach.

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après, after; --après-midi, f. and m., afternoon. arbre, m., tree. ardent, burning; fièvre --e, burning fever. argent, m., money, silver. armé, -e, armed. arriver, to arrive, to happen. s'asseoir, irr., to sit down. assez, enough. assiette, f., plate. assommer, to fell, to kill. s'assoupir, to be drowsy, to doze. atteindre, irr., to reach, to attain. attendre, to wait for; en attendant, waiting, meanwhile. s'attendre, to expect. attraper, to catch, to entrap. au, contraction of à and le, see à. aube, f., daybreak, dawn. aucun, -e, any; with a negation, no. audace, f., audacity. au-dessus (de), above, over; au delà, beyond. aujourd'hui, to-day. auparavant, before. auprès (de), near, about, close to. aussi, also, likewise. aussitôt, directly, so soon as. autant (de), as much, as many; d'-- mieux, so much the better. auteur, m., author. automne, m. and f., autumn. autour (de), around. autre, other; -ment, otherwise. aux, contraction of à and les, see à. avaler, to swallow. avancer, to bring up, to advance. (See Alph. Tab., § 49.) avant, before. avantage, m., advantage. avantageux, -se, advantageous. avec, with. avenir, m., future. avide, greedy. avis, m., opinion, mind, advice. avoir, irr., to have; y --, to be there.

B.

babillage, m., babbling, chatter. babiller, to chatter. bailler, to yawn. bain, m., bath. baiser, to kiss; un baiser, m., a kiss. baisser, to lower; se --, to stoop. se balancer, to swing. balançoire, f., swing. balai, m., broom. balayer, to sweep. balle, f., ball. banc, m., bench. bandeau, m., bandage, head-band. bander, to bind up. bannir, to banish. barbare, barbarous. barbe, f., beard. barrer, to stop up, to bar. bas, -se, down, low; de -- en haut, from the bottom to the top. bas, m., stocking. basse-cour, f., poultry-yard. bateau, m., boat. bâton, m., stick, cane. battre, irr., to beat; -- des mains, to clap with the hands. béant, -e, gaping, open. beau, bel, belle, beautiful, fine. beauté, f., beauty. beaucoup (de), much, many. bégayer, to stammer. benêt, m., fool, booby. bénir, to bless. se bercer, to rock. berceuse, rocking; chaise-berceuse, f., rocking-chair. besogne, f., work, task. besoin, m., need; avoir --, to need, to be in need. beurre, m., butter. bibliothèque, f., library. bien, well, right, proper; --, m., property. bien-être, m., welfare. bienfaisance, f., benevolence; société de --, benevolent society. bientôt, soon. bienveillant, -e, kind. bière, f., coffin. bille, f., marble; jouer aux --s, to play marbles. blanc, -che, white. bleu, -e, blue. boeuf, m., ox, beef. boire, irr., to drink. bois, m., wood. boisson, f., beverage, drink. boite, f., box. bon, -ne, good; bonne, f., nurse; bon-vivant, good liver, epicure; bon ton, good manners; tout de --, in good earnest. bonbon, m., sweetmeat; --bonbonnière, f., sweetmeat-box.

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bondir, to leap, to bound. bonheur, m., happiness; par --, fortunately. bonnet, m., cap. bonté, f., kindness. borné, shallow. bouche, f., mouth; bonne --, tidbit. bouger, to move, to budge. bouillir, irr., to boil; faire --, to make boil. boulanger, m., baker. bout, m., end; au --, at the end. boutonner, to button. boutonnière, f., button-hole. bras, m., arm. brave, kind, good, brave. briller, to glitter, to shine. brin à brin, bit by bit. briser, to break to pieces. brosse, f., brush; -r, to brush. brouter, to browse. broyer, to crush. bruit, m., noise. brûler, to burn. brun, -e, brown. buisson, m., brush, small tree. bureau, m., writing-table. but, m., aim. buveur, m., drinker.